Learning the friendly way

Remember when crypto was just about pizza?

In 2010, Laszlo Hanyecz paid 10,000 Bitcoin for two Papa John's pizzas, a transaction now worth over $1 billion. Gut punch aside, crypto enthusiasts celebrate this first real-world integration every 22 May as "Bitcoin Pizza Day." 

Back then, the entire crypto ecosystem could fit into a few obscure forums where libertarian idealists and coding cowboys traded digital tokens like baseball cards, convinced they were building the future from their basements. In hindsight, they were. 

Fast forward to today, and that scrappy subculture has evolved into something unrecognisable from its meme-driven origins. Nike is dropping NFT sneakers. Major banks hold crypto assets. Entire countries are experimenting with digital currencies. The rebellious energy that once fueled late-night Discord raids and "diamond hands" memes has crystallised into legitimate businesses, governance protocols, and entirely new economic models.

But here's what's fascinating: crypto didn't just grow up by abandoning its roots, it’s matured by doubling down on them. The community-first mentality that built Bitcoin is now reshaping how we think about ownership, identity, and value creation in the digital age.

This isn't a story about crypto going mainstream by becoming boring. It's about a culture that learned to channel its revolutionary spirit into building the infrastructure for tomorrow's economy, while somehow keeping its irreverent soul intact. 

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From meme coins to maturity: the evolution of crypto culture

Remember the early days of crypto culture, where things were gloriously chaotic? A community united by shared jokes about "HODLing" (born from a drunken misspelling of "hold"), treating every market crash as a buying opportunity, and genuinely believing that traditional finance was destined for the dustbin of history. The culture was equal parts utopian manifesto and internet meme factory.

And it wasn't just rebellious posturing, it was the emergence of genuinely new social norms. 

Crypto communities developed their own language (think "WAGMI," "ape in," "moon"), their own heroes (Satoshi's mysterious disappearance became legendary), and their own values centred around decentralisation, permissionless innovation, and radical transparency. Forums like BitcoinTalk and subreddits became digital town squares where code was law and reputation was earned through contribution, not credentials.

But cultures mature through adversity, and crypto has weathered some brutal winters. The 2018 crash wiped out over 80% of the market's value. The 2022 collapse saw major players like FTX implode spectacularly. 

Each crisis forced the community to evolve, weeding out pure speculation while strengthening the foundations of legitimate innovation. The survivors weren't just the hodlers; they were the builders who kept shipping code through bear markets.

What emerged from these trials and tribulations was a culture that kept its revolutionary energy but channelled it more strategically. 

The meme coins didn't disappear, they just became one flavour in a much richer ecosystem. Fast forward to today, where crypto culture balances its anti-establishment DNA with the practical work of building alternatives to the systems it once merely criticised.

Why the crypto ecosystem is no longer just a subculture

Somewhere between the pizza transactions and the present day, crypto stopped being a niche hobby and became infrastructure. Real estate transactions are settling on blockchain networks. Identity verification happens through decentralised protocols. Entire financial systems run on code that anyone can audit, and no single entity controls.

The rise of Decentralised Autonomous Organisations (DAOs) exemplifies this maturation. 

What started as an experimental governance model has evolved into a practical tool for coordinating everything from investment funds to open-source software development. DAOs like Uniswap and Compound manage billions in assets through community governance, hushing the haters and proving that decentralised decision-making can work at scale.

Meanwhile, DeFi has created a parallel financial infrastructure that operates 24/7, serves global users without permission, and offers yields that traditional banks can't match. Creator economies have exploded as artists, musicians, and content creators tokenise their work and build direct relationships with their audiences. These aren't experiments anymore, they're functioning businesses generating real revenue and solving real problems.

Perhaps most tellingly, regulatory frameworks are finally catching up. When governments start creating clear rules for an industry, that's usually a sign it's moved beyond the experimental phase. 

The role of Web3 in shaping new digital identities

Let’s shine a light on Web3 - no longer just a “technical upgrade,” but now a fundamental shift in how people relate to their digital lives. For the first time in internet history, users can truly own their online identities, content, and social connections. While, admittedly, it’s still in its early stages, it's still creating new economic opportunities for millions of people.

Gamers are leading the charge in another direction, earning real income through play-to-earn games and trading in-game assets as NFTs. What seems like fun and games is actually a new form of digital labour, with some players in developing countries earning more from virtual economies than traditional jobs provide. 

However you feel about Web3, you cannot deny that the cultural shift here is profound: digital activities that were once purely recreational are becoming legitimate career paths.

Investing beyond the hype: what smart money looks like now

Thankfully, the days of throwing money at anything with "coin" in the name are largely over. Today's sophisticated crypto investors approach the space with the same rigour they'd apply to any emerging technology sector, which is to say, a lot more rigour than the early "number go up" mentality.

Modern crypto investing focuses heavily on tokenomics: the economic design of how tokens are created, distributed, and used within their ecosystems. Smart investors analyse token supply schedules, utility functions, governance mechanisms, and community incentive structures. They're looking for projects that create genuine value, not just speculative buzz.

Due diligence now includes evaluating team credentials, technology innovation, product-market fit, and regulatory compliance. The most successful crypto investors today often have backgrounds in traditional venture capital or technology, bringing institutional-grade analysis to a previously amateur-dominated space. 

They're backing teams building long-term infrastructure, not chasing the latest meme coin pump.

This maturation has also created new investment categories. There's now a clear distinction between speculative trading, strategic token investments, and equity stakes in crypto companies. Even institutional players like pension funds and endowments are entering the space through regulated products, bringing both capital and credibility.

The cultural shift is striking: crypto conferences now feature more suit-wearing fund managers than hoodie-wearing day traders. But the underlying belief in decentralised systems remains strong - it's just being expressed through more sophisticated financial instruments.

Community, governance, and cultural legitimacy

Consider this: crypto's greatest innovation might not be technical, it might be social. 

The ecosystem has pioneered new models of community organisation that traditional institutions are now studying and adopting. 

• Discord servers with hundreds of thousands of members coordinate global initiatives. 
• GitHub repositories with contributors from every continent build open-source infrastructure. 
• Governance tokens give stakeholders direct voting power on protocol decisions.

This community-first approach has proven remarkably resilient. When centralised exchanges fail or regulations threaten specific projects, the decentralised nature of crypto communities allows them to adapt and continue building. The culture's emphasis on transparency, open-source development, and collective ownership creates natural resistance to single points of failure.

Cultural legitimacy has arrived through an unexpected channel: brand adoption. When Nike launches NFT collections, Budweiser buys Ethereum domain names, and H&M experiments with blockchain supply chains, it signals that crypto has moved from counterculture to culture. 

These aren't tech companies hedging their bets: they're traditional brands recognising that their customers expect digital ownership options.

So, what's next for crypto culture?

The next wave is already building. Real-world assets (from rental properties to intellectual property) will trade as tokens around the clock. Gen Z, raised on digital scarcity and creator economies, will make crypto-first living the norm.

Challenges remain: regulation, interoperability, and sustainability. But crypto culture thrives on adversity, turning every crisis into an upgrade opportunity.

The culture that started with a Papa John’s purchase has fundamentally rewired how we think about money, ownership, and coordination. This isn't just growing up, it's growing into the foundation of tomorrow's economy.

And somewhere, Laszlo Hanyecz is probably still enjoying pizza, though he's probably paying with dollars these days.

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The financial revolution isn't happening in Wall Street's landmark buildings, it's exploding through smartphone screens in rural villages, urban apartments, and immigrant communities worldwide. And while traditional banks still ask for three forms of ID and a pristine credit score, fintech is rewriting the rules of who gets to participate in the global economy.

Here's the reality: 1.4 billion adults globally remain unbanked, locked out of basic financial services that most of us take for granted. In the U.S. alone, roughly 5.4% of households (about 5.6 million families) have no relationship with a bank or credit union. These aren't just statistics; they're people paying check-cashing fees, carrying cash everywhere, and building zero credit history despite working multiple jobs.

But here's where it gets interesting: fintech isn't just offering band-aid solutions. It's fundamentally disrupting how financial services work, creating pathways to economic participation that bypass traditional gatekeepers entirely. 

From mobile banking apps that require no minimum balance to blockchain-based lending that ignores credit scores, technology is democratising finance in ways that seemed impossible just a decade ago.

The question isn't whether fintech can help the unbanked, it's already happening. The real question is how fast this transformation can scale and whether it can reach the communities that need it most. 

Why so many people remain unbanked

Let's dive into the barriers that keep millions locked out of traditional banking. It's not just about money, though, of course, that’s a part of it.

The most obvious culprit? Banks themselves. Traditional institutions have built their entire business model around risk assessment, which typically means credit scores, employment verification, and documentation requirements that exclude huge swaths of the population. 

If you're an immigrant without an established credit history, a gig worker with irregular income, or someone who's been burned by predatory lending in the past, good luck getting a simple checking account with credit facilities.

Geographic accessibility plays a massive role, too. Rural communities have watched bank branches disappear at an alarming rate: since 2009, over 10,000 bank branches have closed across the UK. When the nearest bank is 50 miles away and you're working two jobs just to stay afloat, maintaining a traditional banking relationship becomes practically impossible.

Then there's the trust factor. Many unbanked individuals come from communities where banks have historically been extractive rather than supportive. Why would you trust an institution that charges overdraft fees designed to trap you in cycles of debt? For many, cash-only transactions feel safer and more transparent than navigating hidden fees and complex terms of service.

Digital literacy creates another layer of exclusion. While fintech promises mobile-first solutions, those solutions still require smartphone access, internet connectivity, and the technical knowledge to navigate increasingly complex apps. For older adults or those without consistent internet access, digital banking can feel more like a barrier than a bridge.

The demographic impact tells the whole story: immigrants, young adults building their first financial identity, gig workers whose income doesn't fit traditional employment models, and rural populations where infrastructure lags behind urban centres. These aren't fringe communities, they represent the fastest-growing segments of the workforce.

Traditional banking's limitations

Here's the uncomfortable truth about traditional banking: it was designed for a different era, when employment was stable, credit histories were linear, and financial relationships lasted decades. Today's economy doesn't work that way, but banks haven't caught up.

The FICO credit scoring system perfectly exemplifies this disconnect. Created in 1989, it treats credit like a single number that defines your financial worth, ignoring factors like consistent rent payments, utility bill history, or mobile phone payment patterns. If you've never had a credit card or traditional loan, you're effectively invisible to the system that determines whether you can access basic financial services. 

Fee structures reveal even deeper problems. The average overdraft fee has climbed to $35, while monthly maintenance fees can easily cost $200+ annually for basic checking accounts. 

For someone living paycheck to paycheck, these fees aren't just inconvenient, they can be financially devastating. Banks profit billions annually from overdraft fees alone, creating perverse incentives to trap rather than support their most vulnerable customers.

Bureaucracy adds another layer of exclusion. Opening a bank account requires documentation that many people simply don't have readily available: proof of address, employment verification, Social Security numbers, and often a minimum deposit. For undocumented immigrants, frequent movers, or those between jobs, these requirements create insurmountable barriers.

Traditional banks also struggle with personalisation at scale. They're built to serve middle-class customers with predictable income patterns, not gig workers whose earnings fluctuate wildly or small business owners who need flexible lending options. The result? Financial products that don't match real-world financial lives.

How fintech is changing the game

Sure, fintech isn’t a cure-all, but it is revolutionising finance by flipping the model: instead of forcing people to fit outdated systems, it builds systems that fit how people actually live and work.

Mobile banking & digital wallets

Mobile banking apps like Chime, Venmo, and Cash App have obliterated traditional barriers to entry. Chime offers fee-free banking with no minimum balance requirements and early direct deposit features that get workers paid up to two days faster than traditional banks. 

That might not sound revolutionary until you realise that for someone living paycheck to paycheck, getting paid two days early can mean the difference between making rent on time or facing late fees.

Venmo transformed peer-to-peer payments from a complicated wire transfer process into something as simple as sending a text message. Cash App went further, adding investing features, Bitcoin purchases, and small business payment processing to a single app that anyone can download for free.

Increasingly, platforms like Tap are also stepping in - not just as digital wallets, but as integrated ecosystems that combine spending, saving, and cross-border access for underserved users. These aren't just simplified versions of traditional banking, they're entirely different approaches that prioritise accessibility and user experience over profit maximisation through fees and complexity.

Peer-to-peer lending & credit building

The lending revolution is even more dramatic. Platforms like Avant, Earnest, and newer crypto-lending protocols are using alternative data sources and AI-driven risk assessment to make lending decisions that traditional banks couldn't even consider.

Instead of relying solely on FICO scores, these platforms analyse everything from social media activity to mobile phone payment patterns to assess creditworthiness. They're building credit profiles for people who were previously invisible to the traditional system, creating pathways to financial growth that didn't exist before.

Peer-to-peer lending removes banks from the equation entirely, connecting borrowers directly with individual lenders or pools of capital. This creates more competitive interest rates and more flexible terms, especially for borrowers who don't fit traditional risk profiles.

Micro-investment & wealth-building tools

Investment platforms like Robinhood, Acorns, and international players like Nutmeg have democratised wealth building by eliminating minimum investment requirements and complex fee structures. Acorns rounds up everyday purchases and invests the spare change, allowing people to build investment portfolios with literally pennies.

These platforms reimagine what investing looks like for people who aren't already wealthy. Educational resources, simplified interfaces, and fractional share ownership mean that someone making minimum wage can start building long-term wealth with the same tools previously only reserved for high-net-worth individuals.

DeFi & blockchain for financial access

Decentralised finance represents the most radical reimagining of financial services yet. Ethereum-based platforms allow people to lend, borrow, and earn interest without any traditional financial institution involvement. Smart contracts automatically execute financial agreements, eliminating the need for banks, credit checks, or geographical restrictions.

Crypto wallets provide financial services to anyone with a smartphone and internet connection, regardless of their documentation status, credit history, or location. While still nascent and volatile, DeFi protocols are processing billions in transactions and proving that alternative financial systems can operate at scale.

Benefits fintech brings to the unbanked

The advantages aren't just theoretical, they're transforming lives in measurable ways.

Accessibility leads the list. 

Fintech services operate 24/7 from any smartphone, eliminating the geographical and temporal constraints that keep people away from traditional banks. Someone working night shifts or multiple jobs can manage their finances during a break, not during banking hours that conflict with their work schedule.

Affordability follows closely. 

Most fintech platforms operate with dramatically lower overhead costs than traditional banks, allowing them to offer services with minimal or no fees. When you're not paying for physical branches, armies of tellers, and legacy IT systems, you can pass those savings to customers who need them most.

Speed transforms financial emergency management. 

Traditional loan applications can take weeks while fintech platforms often provide decisions in minutes. When your car breaks down and you need to get to work tomorrow, that speed difference isn't convenience - it's survival.

Transparency.  Transparency. Transparency. 

Fintech apps typically show real-time transaction data, clear fee structures, and straightforward terms of service. No more surprise fees or hidden charges that drain accounts without warning.

Using data instead of old patterns.

Data-driven personalisation means financial products that actually match individual circumstances. Instead of one-size-fits-all banking products, AI-powered platforms can offer customised solutions based on spending patterns, income volatility, and financial goals.

Safety from the loan sharks. 

Perhaps most importantly, fintech reduces exposure to predatory lending practices. Transparent algorithms and competitive marketplaces make it harder for bad actors to exploit vulnerable populations with payday loans and other extractive financial products.

Case studies & real-world applications

The real proof lies in how these technologies are working in practice across different communities and regions.

U.S. gig workers have embraced fintech payroll advances and flexible banking solutions. Uber and Lyft drivers use apps like Earnin to access their earnings before payday, eliminating the need for expensive payday loans. 

DoorDash partnered with DasherDirect to offer delivery workers immediate access to their earnings plus cashback rewards on gas purchases = financial services designed specifically for the gig economy.

Africa's mobile money revolution provides the most compelling example of fintech leapfrogging traditional banking infrastructure. M-Pesa in Kenya processes more transactions annually than Western Union globally, allowing people to send money, pay bills, and access microloans through basic mobile phones. 

Over 80% of Kenyan adults now use mobile money services, creating a more financially inclusive society than many developed nations.

Latin America's neobank adoption is exploding as traditional banks struggle to serve growing populations. Brazil's Nubank has over 70 million customers, offering fee-free banking and credit building to people previously excluded from traditional financial services. 

Mexico's Clip provides small business payment processing to street vendors and micro-entrepreneurs who couldn't access traditional merchant services.

These aren't isolated success stories: they're proof of concept for global financial inclusion through technology.

Barriers fintech still faces

Despite the revolutionary potential, significant obstacles remain.

Digital literacy and smartphone access create fundamental barriers. While smartphone penetration continues growing globally, reliable internet connectivity and the technical skills needed to navigate financial apps remain unevenly distributed. Older adults and rural populations often struggle with interfaces designed by young urban developers.

Regulatory hurdles complicate expansion and innovation. Know Your Customer (KYC) compliance requirements, anti-money laundering regulations, and licensing requirements vary dramatically across jurisdictions, making it difficult for fintech companies to scale globally. Regulatory uncertainty around crypto and DeFi creates additional complications for even the most innovative solutions.

Infrastructure gaps in developing regions limit fintech's reach. While mobile money works well in areas with basic cellular coverage, more sophisticated fintech services require robust internet infrastructure that many rural and low-income areas still lack.

Crypto and DeFi adoption scepticism remains high, particularly among the very populations these technologies could most benefit. Volatility concerns, complexity, and association with scams and fraud make many potential users hesitant to embrace blockchain-based financial services.

Cultural barriers also persist. In communities where cash has been king for generations, shifting to digital-first financial services requires not just technological adoption but cultural change. Trust must be earned through consistent, reliable service over time.

What the future holds: innovations & inclusion

The next wave of fintech innovation promises even more dramatic transformation.

Artificial intelligence will enable hyper-personalised financial services that adapt in real-time to individual circumstances. AI-powered financial advisors will provide wealth management services previously available only to millionaires, while machine learning algorithms will create more accurate and inclusive credit assessment models.

Open banking regulations will force traditional financial institutions to share customer data with fintech competitors, accelerating innovation and competition. This means better services, lower costs, and more options for consumers who have been underserved by traditional banks.

Regulatory evolution will create clearer frameworks for fintech innovation while protecting consumers. Central bank digital currencies (CBDCs) may provide government-backed alternatives to both traditional banking and cryptocurrencies, potentially reaching populations that current solutions miss.

Blockchain-based financial identity systems could eliminate documentation barriers that currently exclude millions from financial services. Decentralised identity solutions would allow people to build financial reputations independent of traditional credit systems or government documentation.

The convergence of fintech with other technologies (Internet of Things sensors for supply chain financing, augmented reality for financial education, 5G networks for real-time global payments) will likely create financial services we can barely imagine today.

Conclusion

Fintech isn't just disrupting traditional banking: it's democratising economic participation on a global scale. 

From mobile money transforming African economies to gig worker payment solutions in American cities, technology is proving that financial inclusion isn't just morally right, it's economically inevitable.

However, the transformation isn't complete, and significant barriers still remain. But the trajectory is clear: financial services are becoming more accessible, affordable, and aligned with how people actually live and work in the 21st century.

The most exciting developments will emerge from collaboration between fintech innovators, government regulators, and community organisations that understand local needs.

This isn't a zero-sum game between technology and tradition—it's an opportunity to build financial systems that serve everyone, not just those who were lucky enough to be born into existing networks of economic privilege.

The unbanked aren't waiting for permission to participate in the global economy. They're already using whatever tools they can access to build financial stability and opportunity. Fintech's job is to make sure those tools are powerful, accessible, and designed with their real needs in mind.

The financial revolution is happening whether traditional institutions join it or not. The question is whether we'll build a system that includes everyone or leaves millions behind. The technology exists. The demand is obvious. Now it's up to us to make financial inclusion a reality, not just a promise.

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Euro Tether (EURT) is a euro-pegged stablecoin created by Tether Operations Limited, designed to maintain a 1:1 value with the euro. Think of it as the European cousin of the more famous USDT (Tether USD) - it's a digital token that aims to hold steady at one euro per token, making it useful for businesses, or just people who want to use crypto without worrying about wild price swings.

Built primarily on the Ethereum blockchain, EURT was developed to give European users and businesses a stable digital asset that mirrors the euro's value. However, there's an important twist to this story: Tether announced in November 2024 that EURT would be discontinued, with a redemption deadline of 27 November 2025, due to regulatory challenges in Europe and the implementation of the EU's MiCA regulations.

Who created EURT and why?

EURT comes from Tether Operations Limited, the same company behind USDT, which is currently the world's largest stablecoin by market cap, and a major player in the stablecoin space since 2014.

The reasoning behind creating EURT was straightforward: while USDT served dollar-based users well, there was a clear need for a euro-denominated stablecoin. European businesses, traders, and crypto users wanted a way to:

• Hold digital assets without exposure to crypto volatility
• Make fast, borderless payments in euros
• Access decentralised finance (DeFi) applications with euro-based assets
• Trade cryptocurrencies while maintaining euro exposure

Think of it like having a digital euro that could move as quickly as an email, without needing traditional banking infrastructure for every transaction.

How does EURT work?

EURT operates on a relatively simple principle that's common among centralised stablecoins. Here's how the process works:

Minting new EURT: When someone wants to create new EURT tokens, they deposit euros with Tether. In return, Tether mints (creates) an equivalent amount of EURT tokens. It's like exchanging physical euros for digital IOUs that can be used in the crypto world.

Burning EURT: When users want to redeem their EURT for actual euros, they send their tokens back to Tether. The company then "burns" (destroys) those tokens and returns the equivalent euros to the user's bank account.

Maintaining the Peg: Tether claims to hold euro reserves equal to the number of EURT tokens in circulation. This 1:1 backing is what's supposed to keep each EURT worth exactly one euro. If demand increases, more tokens are minted. If demand decreases, tokens are burned.

EURT primarily operates on Ethereum, but it has also been available on other blockchains like Solana and Binance Smart Chain, depending on user demand and technical considerations.

What was EURT used for?

Before its discontinuation announcement, EURT served several practical purposes in the crypto ecosystem:

Trading and avoiding volatility

Traders used EURT as a stable store of value when they wanted to exit volatile crypto positions without converting back to traditional banking systems. It’s like having a safe harbour during crypto storms.

Cross-border payments

EURT enabled fast, relatively cheap international transfers in euros. Instead of using traditional wire transfers, which can take days and incur significant fees, users can send EURT tokens across borders in minutes.

DeFi applications

EURT found a familiar home on DeFi platforms, used for lending, borrowing, and yield farming activities. Users could earn interest on their euro holdings or use EURT as collateral for loans.

Business operations

Some European businesses accepted EURT for payments or used it for treasury management, especially those already comfortable with crypto operations.

Why is EURT being discontinued?

This is where the story takes an interesting turn. On 27 November 2024, Tether announced that EURT would be phased out, with all tokens needing to be redeemed by 27 November 2025.

The primary reason? Europe's Markets in Crypto-Assets (MiCA) regulation, which came into effect in 2024. MiCA requires stablecoin issuers operating in the EU to meet strict compliance standards, including:

• Detailed regulatory reporting
• Specific reserve requirements
• Ongoing supervision by EU authorities
• Substantial compliance infrastructure

For Tether, the cost-benefit analysis didn't add up. EURT had a relatively small market capitalisation of around $27 million at the time of discontinuation, tiny compared to USDT's market cap of over $100 billion. The regulatory compliance costs and operational complexity of meeting MiCA requirements weren't justified by EURT's limited adoption.

It's essentially a business decision: the juice wasn't worth the squeeze for a product that hadn't gained significant market traction.

What's replacing EURT?

Tether isn't completely abandoning the European market. The company has partnered with Quantoz Payments to develop EURQ, a new euro-pegged stablecoin designed from the ground up to comply with MiCA regulations.

EURQ is being built with regulatory compliance as a core feature rather than an afterthought. This means it should be able to operate legally within the European Union's new regulatory framework without the compliance headaches that led to EURT's discontinuation.

However, EURQ is still in development, and there's no confirmed launch date yet. European users looking for euro-denominated stablecoins will need to explore other options in the meantime.

How does EURT compare to other stablecoins?

Understanding EURT's place in the stablecoin landscape helps explain both its purpose and its limitations:

EURT vs USDT (Tether USD)

USDT is EURT's dollar-denominated sibling and is massively more popular. While they work similarly, USDT benefits from the dollar's dominance in global trade and crypto markets. EURT never achieved anywhere near USDT's adoption levels.

EURT vs USDC (USD Coin)

USDC, issued by Circle, is generally considered more transparent and regulated than Tether's offerings. Circle regularly publishes detailed attestations of its reserves. EURT lacked this level of transparency and regulatory clarity.

EURT vs DAI

DAI is a decentralised stablecoin that's not controlled by a single company. While EURT required trusting Tether's reserves and management, DAI is backed by crypto collateral and governed by a decentralised community. However, DAI is primarily dollar-pegged.

EURT vs VNX VEUR

VNX VEUR is another euro-pegged stablecoin that's designed to be MiCA-compliant from the start. Unlike EURT, it was built with European regulations in mind and continues to operate in the EU market.

How to sell or convert EURT (if you still hold it)

If you currently hold EURT tokens, you have until 27 November 2025 to redeem them. A word of warning: try not to wait until the last minute as liquidity for EURT may decrease as the deadline approaches, potentially making it harder to convert at favourable rates.

You can sell or convert EURT on most major platforms. 

The bottom line on EURT

Euro Tether represented an interesting experiment in euro-denominated stablecoins, but it ultimately couldn't overcome the challenges of regulatory compliance and limited adoption. However, not all is lost: its discontinuation highlights the growing importance of regulatory clarity in the crypto space, especially in Europe.

For users who relied on EURT, the transition period provides time to move to alternative solutions. The development of EURQ and other MiCA-compliant euro stablecoins suggests that demand for euro-denominated digital assets remains strong - it's just a matter of building products that can thrive in the new regulatory environment.

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From Bitcoin’s meteoric rise to the nonstop influx of new blockchain projects, digital currencies have captured the imagination (and wallets) of millions of people around the world. Crypto isn't just disrupting finance - it's rewriting the rules of money.

Unlike stocks or bonds that sleep when markets close, crypto never does. It’s borderless, always on, and untethered to any one country or institution, making it a magnet for those chasing new ways to diversify and bet on the future.

But it’s not all moonshots and memes. Volatility is real. Prices can rocket, or crash, within hours. And with rules still catching up, the landscape remains wild and unpredictable.

Here’s a guide to entering the market in 2025 - everything you need to know (and why it’s important). It’s not all high risk, high reward, so if you’re jumping in, make sure you know what’s going on.

What is cryptocurrency and how does it work?

Think of cryptocurrency as digital money that exists only online. Unlike the dollars in your bank account, which are controlled by banks and governments, cryptocurrencies run on networks of computers around the world.

The blockchain foundation

At its core, digital currency relies on something called blockchain technology. Imagine a ledger book that's copied across thousands of computers worldwide. Every time someone makes a transaction, it gets recorded in this ledger, and all the computers have to agree it's valid.

This system creates trust without needing a central authority like a bank: it's essentially having thousands of witnesses verify every transaction.

Types of cryptocurrency

There are plenty of different types of crypto on the market, each serving different purposes - from payment-focused currencies to utility tokens to memecoins.

Bitcoin (BTC) is the original and most well-known crypto, designed primarily as a decentralised digital alternative to traditional money. It's often referred to as "digital gold" due to its limited supply and store-of-value appeal.

Ethereum (ETH) introduced smart contracts (self-executing agreements), which opened the door to decentralised applications (dapps). This innovation gave rise to other development-focused platforms, like Solana (SOL) or Avalanche (AVAX), which power other smart contract ecosystems.

Then there are stablecoins, such as Tether (USDT) and USD Coin (USDC), which are pegged to fiat currencies like the U.S. dollar. These aim to reduce volatility and are often used for trading, lending, or cross-border transfers.

Utility tokens, like Chainlink (LINK) or Uniswap (UNI), serve specific functions within a platform, such as paying for services or governance participation. 

Meanwhile, security tokens represent ownership in real-world assets, like shares in a company or real estate. Examples include tZERO (TZROP), which offers tokenised equity in the tZERO platform, or INX (INX), a regulated token representing equity in the INX digital trading platform. These tokens are typically issued under securities regulations and grant holders rights like dividends or profit-sharing.

Lastly, memecoins (e.g., Dogecoin (DOGE) or Pepe (PEPE)) often start as jokes or community experiments but can gain traction through viral attention.

This is by no means a complete list, but it offers a sizable overview and a great place to start. 

Crypto vs stocks

When you buy a stock, you’re purchasing a share of ownership in a company. That ownership may entitle you to dividends (a portion of the company’s profits), voting rights, and access to company reports. These stocks are regulated by financial authorities, like the SEC in the U.S., and the value of a stock typically reflects the company’s performance, market conditions, and investor sentiment.

By contrast, when you buy crypto, you’re acquiring a digital asset - not a stake in a company. Most cryptocurrencies don’t grant ownership rights, dividends, or governance over a legal entity (unless structured as security tokens). Their value is driven by a combination of factors, including:

• Supply and demand: Many coins have a limited supply (like Bitcoin), which can affect price.
  
• Utility: Tokens may serve a specific function within a blockchain ecosystem, such as paying for network fees, accessing services, or participating in governance.
  
• Market sentiment and adoption: Speculation, media attention, and global events often play a large role in price fluctuations.
  

Crypto markets are also 24/7 and borderless, unlike stock markets, which operate during fixed hours and are tied to specific jurisdictions.

Is cryptocurrency a good investment?

This question doesn't have a simple answer: the answer depends on your individual financial situation and risk tolerance. Let’s take a look at some of the potential benefits and risks. 

Potential benefits

• Growth potential: Some cryptocurrencies have delivered extraordinary returns over the years
• Decentralisation: Not controlled by any single government or institution
• Accessibility: Markets operate 24/7, and you can start with small amounts
• Portfolio diversification: May behave differently from traditional assets

Significant risks

• Extreme volatility: Prices can dramatically drop in hours/days
• Regulatory uncertainty: Government actions can dramatically impact prices
• Security risks: Hacking, scams, and lost passwords can result in total loss
• Complexity: The technology can be difficult to understand
• Limited track record: Most cryptocurrencies haven't been around long enough to establish long-term patterns

If you're considering crypto as part of your broader financial strategy, it's worth consulting with a qualified advisor who understands digital assets.

Different ways to invest in cryptocurrency

The good news is that you don't have to buy a full Bitcoin to get exposure to the crypto market. Here are several approaches, each with different risk levels and complexity.

Buy crypto directly

This is the most straightforward approach - purchasing actual crypto through a regulated platform. Note that you can buy a fraction of a cryptocurrency, spending what you want instead of committing to buying a whole coin at market value (i.e. you can buy $100 worth of BTC as opposed to $100,000 for a full one).

What you need to buy crypto through Tap:

• Download the app
• Create and verify your account
• Load funds (bank transfer, debit cards accepted)
• Buy your chosen cryptocurrency

You can safely store your crypto in unique wallets created for you within the app. Utilising top security measures and fully regulated, Tap offers peace of mind alongside crypto endeavours. 

Crypto ETFs and ETPs

Exchange-traded funds (ETFs) let you invest in crypto through your regular brokerage account, just like buying stocks.

Examples include:

• Bitcoin ETFs (like IBIT, FBTC)
• Ethereum ETFs
• Broad crypto market ETFs

Benefits:

• No need to manage wallets or private keys
• Familiar investment process
• Potential tax advantages
• Professional management

Drawbacks:

• Management fees
• No direct ownership of crypto
• May not perfectly track crypto prices

Crypto-related stocks

You can gain indirect exposure through companies heavily involved in the crypto space.

Examples include:

• Strategy (MSTR): Company that holds significant Bitcoin reserves
• Riot Platforms (RIOT): Bitcoin mining company

These stocks often move with crypto prices but aren't direct replacements for owning crypto.

Blockchain investment funds

Some mutual funds and ETFs focus on companies developing blockchain technology, providing broader exposure to the ecosystem beyond just cryptocurrencies.

Advanced options (futures and options)

Experienced investors might consider crypto futures or options, but these are complex instruments with significant risks and aren't suitable for beginners.

How to choose the right investment strategy

Your approach to crypto should align with your overall financial goals and risk tolerance.

Consider your goals

• Growth seeking: Looking for potentially high returns over time
• Speculation: Short-term trading (highest risk)
• Diversification: Adding a small crypto allocation to a traditional portfolio
• Learning: Starting small to understand the technology

Time horizon matters

Crypto markets can be extremely volatile in the short term. If you might need the money within a few years, the high volatility could be problematic. As with any investment, never risk more than you’re willing to lose. 

Risk tolerance check

Some financial commentators say that because crypto can be so volatile, it's often kept as a small part of a larger investment portfolio, usually less than 10%. The right amount for you depends on your goals and how much risk you're comfortable taking.

Diversification within crypto

If you decide to invest in crypto, consider spreading your investment across different types rather than putting everything into one coin.

How to start investing in cryptocurrency: step-by-step

If you've decided to explore crypto investing, here's a systematic approach:

Step 1: Choose your platform

Research different exchanges and brokers. Look for:

• Strong security track record
• Good customer support
• Reasonable fees
• User-friendly interface
• Proper regulatory compliance

For the sake of this guide, we will continue by using Tap as an example. 

Step 2: Set up security

• Create and verify your account
• Enable two-factor authentication (2FA)
• Use a strong, unique password
• Consider using a dedicated email for crypto accounts

Step 3: Do your research

Before buying any crypto, understand:

• What problem it aims to solve
• How it works
• Who's behind the project
• Its track record and community

Step 4: Make your first purchase

Some people start by purchasing small amounts as a way to learn about the ecosystem without overcommitting financially. On the note of beginners, well-established cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin or Ethereum tend to receive more attention because of their track record and broader adoption.

Step 5: Monitor and learn

Track your investment's performance, but avoid making decisions based on daily price movements. Use this time to continue learning about the technology and market.

Top mistakes to avoid when investing in crypto

FOMO investing

Fear of missing out can lead to buying at peak prices. Avoid making investment decisions based on hype or social media buzz.

Skipping research

Each crypto is different. Don't assume they're all the same or that past performance predicts future results.

Ignoring security

Using weak passwords, falling for phishing scams, or keeping large amounts on unsecured exchanges can lead to total loss. Be vigilant, check that the platform is regulated. 

Misunderstanding costs

Crypto transactions often involve multiple fees - trading fees, network fees, and spread costs. These can add up quickly. Be sure to check the final transaction costs before confirming the trade so that you never get blindsided by hidden fees.

Tax neglect

Cryptocurrency is taxable in most jurisdictions. Be sure to know what the current rules are in your area, or consult a tax advisor who is clued up on cryptocurrencies. Keeping good records from the start is much easier than trying to reconstruct them later.

Is it safe to invest in cryptocurrency?

Safety in cryptocurrency investing involves multiple layers of consideration.

Platform security

Choose exchanges and brokers with strong security track records. Look for:

• Insurance on customer deposits
• Cold storage of customer funds
• Regular security audits
• Transparent communication about security practices

Personal security practices

• Never share your private keys or seed phrases
• Be wary of phishing attempts
• Use reputable wallets and software
• Keep software updated

Regulatory environment

The crypto regulatory landscape is still developing. Changes in government policy can significantly impact prices and accessibility. Stay informed and be aware.

Scam awareness

Be wary of anything that sounds too good to be true. Common cryptocurrency scams include:

• Fake exchanges or wallets
• Ponzi schemes promising guaranteed returns
• Social media manipulation
• Fake celebrity endorsements

Should I invest in crypto for retirement?

Some retirement account providers now offer crypto options, but this comes with additional considerations.

• Higher fees are common for crypto retirement accounts
• Limited cryptocurrency options compared to direct investing
• The extreme volatility may be inappropriate for retirement funds
• Regulatory changes could affect availability

So, should I invest in crypto?

Crypto markets can be volatile and unpredictable. While some early adopters have seen significant gains, many others have faced substantial losses. This isn’t a guaranteed path to wealth - it’s a volatile, evolving market that demands clarity and caution.

Before you dive in, make sure you:

• Understand the tech and the risks behind it
  
• Know your own limits (financially and emotionally)
  
• Start small - only with what you can afford to lose
  
• Diversify, don’t go all-in on any one asset
  
• Stay current: regulations shift fast, and ignorance isn’t bliss
  
  

This isn’t for everyone. Crypto’s wild swings and legal grey zones mean it’s best approached like any high-risk bet: informed, cautious, and never with more than you’re willing to lose.

Numeraire is a groundbreaking crypto project that powers the world's first AI-driven, crowd-sourced hedge fund. Founded by South African technologist Richard Craib in October 2015, Numerai represents a revolutionary approach to financial markets where thousands of data scientists compete to build the best machine learning models for stock market predictions.

This is reportedly the first crypto to be created and released by a hedge fund, making it a unique player in both the crypto and traditional finance spaces. The platform has gained significant attention for its innovative approach to combining artificial intelligence, blockchain technology, and collective intelligence to create investment strategies.

TLDR

AI-powered hedge fund: Numeraire (NMR) is an Ethereum token that powers Numerai, a hedge fund based in San Francisco that uses artificial intelligence for decision-making and trades without human emotion.

Data science tournament: Numerai hosts the world's hardest data science tournament, rewarding participants with NMR tokens for creating models that enhance the fund's investment returns, with over $200,000 paid out every month.

Crowd-sourced predictions: Participants use Numerai's encrypted data to create machine learning models and submit predictions for evaluation, with successful models earning NMR rewards.

Staking mechanism: Users must hold NMR to participate in Numeraire features, stake NMR on outcomes, and conduct payments within the ecosystem.

What is Numeraire (NMR)?

Numeraire creates a unique ecosystem where data science meets finance through blockchain technology. Instead of relying on traditional investment analysts, Numerai crowdsources its investment decisions by running continuous tournaments where data scientists from around the world compete to build the best prediction models.

Here's how it works: Numerai provides encrypted financial data to participants, who then use machine learning and artificial intelligence to create models that predict stock market movements. The best-performing models are used to guide the hedge fund's actual trading decisions, and their creators are rewarded with NMR tokens.

What makes this approach special is that it combines the collective intelligence of thousands of data scientists with the transparency and incentive structure of blockchain technology. This creates a hedge fund that is theoretically more robust and less prone to the biases and emotional decisions that can affect traditional fund managers.

The platform has attracted some of the world's brightest data scientists, who compete not just for financial rewards but also for the intellectual challenge of building models that can consistently outperform financial markets.

Who created Numeraire?

Numeraire was founded by Richard Craib, a South African technologist who established the company in October 2015. Craib attended the University of Cape Town in 2007, where he studied Mathematics and Economics, later transferring to the University of California, Berkeley as an exchange student.

Before founding Numerai, Richard gained experience in global equity markets and worked at Prudential (M&G). His background in both mathematics and finance gave him the unique perspective needed to envision how machine learning could revolutionise hedge fund management.

Based in San Francisco, Craib has built Numerai into what he describes as "a new kind of hedge fund built by a network of data scientists". His vision was to create a hedge fund that could harness the collective intelligence of data scientists worldwide while using blockchain technology to create proper incentives and transparency.

How does Numeraire work?

The Tournament System

The heart of Numeraire is its ongoing data science tournament. Every week, Numerai releases new encrypted financial data to participants. This data includes information about thousands of stocks, but it's anonymised and encrypted so that participants can't identify specific companies or engage in insider trading.

Data scientists download this data and use it to train machine learning models that predict which stocks will outperform others. They then submit their predictions, and Numerai evaluates how accurate these predictions were against actual market outcomes.

Staking and Rewards

To participate meaningfully in the tournament, data scientists must stake NMR tokens on their predictions. This creates "skin in the game" - if their models perform well, they earn more NMR tokens. If their models perform poorly, they lose some of their staked tokens.

This staking mechanism ensures that participants are incentivised to submit their best models rather than random predictions. It also creates a self-regulating system where the most successful data scientists accumulate more tokens and thus have more influence on the fund's decisions.

Model Aggregation

Numerai doesn't just use one winning model. Instead, it combines the predictions from many high-performing models to create a "meta-model" that guides the hedge fund's actual trading decisions. This ensemble approach is typically more robust than relying on any single prediction model.

What Is NMR?

NMR is the native token of the Numerai ecosystem. It also facilitates:

• Tournament Participation: Data scientists must stake NMR tokens to participate in the prediction tournaments and earn rewards for successful models.
• Incentive Alignment: The staking mechanism ensures that participants are motivated to submit their best work, as poor performance results in token loss.
• Governance Rights: NMR holders can participate in decisions about the platform's future development and rule changes.
• Value Accrual: As the hedge fund grows and more data scientists participate, the demand for NMR tokens increases, potentially driving up their value.
• Reward Distribution: Numerai pays out over $200,000 every month to successful participants, making NMR a direct way to earn from machine learning expertise.

The token operates on Ethereum as an ERC-20 token, making it easily tradable and compatible with the broader DeFi ecosystem.

How can I buy and sell NMR?

NMR tokens can be easily bought and managed through the Tap app, which provides a simple interface for buying, selling, and securely storing NMR along with your other crypto holdings.

It's worth noting that NMR's performance is directly linked to Numerai's hedge fund success and the expansion of its global data science network. 

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There has been an influx of conversation about Proof of Work (PoW) and Proof of Stake (PoS) consensus mechanisms recently. But what do these really mean? In this article, we're fleshing out what they are, how they work, and how they differ from each other.

The shift from traditional PoW systems to more modern PoS alternatives represents one of the most significant developments in crypto history. Understanding these mechanisms isn't just academic curiosity - it directly impacts energy consumption, transaction speeds, security models, and the future sustainability of blockchain networks. 

Whether you're considering which cryptocurrencies to invest in or simply want to understand the technology behind your digital assets, grasping these fundamental concepts is fairly important.

What is a consensus mechanism in crypto?

Before we get started, let's first address what a consensus mechanism is. 

Whether PoW or PoS, the consensus mechanism is the agreed-upon protocol that the entire network will use to maintain and operate the blockchain. It looks at how transactions are verified, the amount of energy they require and how new coins enter circulation. The consensus mechanism is effectively the protocol that keeps all the computers on the network in check.

Think of a consensus mechanism as the rulebook that all participants in a blockchain network must follow. Without it, there would be no way to prevent double-spending (the digital equivalent of spending the same dollar twice). These mechanisms ensure that all participants agree on the current state of the ledger, maintaining the integrity and security that make cryptocurrencies valuable.

While PoW and PoS are the most prominent consensus mechanisms, others exist, including Proof of Authority (PoA) and Delegated Proof of Stake (DPoS). Each serves specific use cases and comes with unique trade-offs between security, speed, and decentralisation.

What is Proof of Work (PoW)?

Proof of Work might be the most well-known of the two as Bitcoin, the first cryptocurrency to come into existence, uses it. Despite what many think, this was not when the consensus mechanism was created. It dates back before crypto's integration into the financial sector, right back to the early 1990s when it was initially used as a means to mitigate email spam.

The system worked in such a way that sending an email required a small amount of work to send one email, and a large amount to send out mass spam emails. Alongside blockchain technology, Satoshi Nakamoto reworked these concepts to create the first digital currency. While the electricity and money implications remained the same, he eradicated the need for human intervention.

The blockchain is made up of blocks containing data pertaining to the network, stored in chronological order. The first block on the blockchain is known as the Genesis block and is hardcoded into its software. Each block after that references the previous block and contains an updated version of the blockchain. Still with me? Let’s dive deeper. 

New blocks are added to the network by miners who compete with each other to solve a complex cryptographic puzzle. The first to complete the puzzle gets to execute the transactions and receive the miner's fee (a reward for their time and energy). 

The process of miners racing to finish the puzzle is known as hashing, as miners are guessing a string of pseudorandom numbers, known as hashes. Once a miner establishes the winning hash, it is broadcast to the network for all the nodes (network of computers) to verify whether it is correct or not. If it is correct, the block is added to the blockchain, and the miner receives the reward.

The reward is new coins that are then minted and added to circulation. In the case of Bitcoin, freshly minted BTC will be distributed to the miners, with this number reducing each time the blockchain reaches a certain number of blocks. This is called a halving and takes place every 210,000 blocks (which takes place roughly every 4 years). Halvings keep the cryptocurrency deflationary and finite.

Examples of Proof of Work cryptocurrencies

Major PoW cryptocurrencies include Bitcoin, Litecoin, Dogecoin, and Ethereum Classic. These networks have demonstrated remarkable security over the years of operation, with Bitcoin alone processing over $19 trillion in transaction volume in 2024 without a successful attack on its consensus mechanism. 

However, this security comes at the cost of significant energy consumption, with Bitcoin's network alone consuming more electricity than some countries.

What is Proof of Stake (PoS)?

Proof of Stake was first introduced to the world through Peercoin in 2012, gaining more traction when Ethereum began implementing PoS in 2020 with the launch of Beacon Chain, and fully transitioned via The Merge in 2022.

Considered a more "energy-efficient" means of operating crypto networks, instead of using energy to race to find the winning hash, PoS focuses on participation in the network by looking at ownership in terms of the coin's total supply. PoS was designed to solve the energy problems that PoW platforms created.

Unlike PoW, which requires specialised mining equipment (ASICs), PoS validation can be done on standard hardware, provided there is stable internet and enough ETH staked.

Instead of a number of miners racing at the same time to solve the same puzzle, the PoS algorithm pseudo-randomly selects a node that will be responsible for verifying the transactions. 

This election is based on the number of coins that a particular node holds. Once selected, the node verifies and signs off on the validity of the transactions and proposes the block to the network. Once the network accepts, the block is added to the blockchain in the same chronological order as the PoW consensus.

Nodes are selected by engaging in a process called staking. They are required to stake (lock) their funds on the platform as collateral in order to be selected. In order not to favour the richest of the nodes, the algorithm will typically also favour how long the funds have been staked for and add an element of randomisation. 

As there is no competition between the miners to race to solve the puzzle, this process is referred to as minting or forging on the PoS networks. The cost implications are specific to that of the platform.

PoS networks often implement additional mechanisms to ensure fairness and security. Slashing is a penalty system where validators can lose a portion of their staked tokens if they act maliciously or fail to properly validate transactions. This economic incentive structure replaces the computational cost of PoW with financial risk, creating a different but equally effective deterrent against bad actors.

Examples of Proof of Stake cryptocurrencies

Leading PoS cryptocurrencies include Ethereum, Solana, Cardano, Polkadot, and Avalanche. These networks can process thousands of transactions per second while consuming a fraction of the energy required by PoW systems, making them attractive for applications requiring high throughput and environmental sustainability.

Proof of Work vs. Proof of Stake: key differences

The differences extend beyond these technical aspects. PoW networks tend to have more predictable issuance schedules and have proven their resilience over longer periods.

PoS networks also offer more flexibility in governance and can implement upgrades more easily, but they're still relatively new compared to established PoW systems.

Industry experts have varying perspectives on these trade-offs. Fidelity Digital Assets noted that PoW's "proven track record" gives it advantages in terms of demonstrated security, while others argue that PoS represents the natural evolution of blockchain technology toward greater efficiency and sustainability.

Pros and cons of PoW and PoS

Proof of Work: advantages and disadvantages

Advantages:

• PoW systems offer unparalleled security through their requirement for massive computational investment, making 51% attacks on networks like Bitcoin practically impossible to execute due to the enormous costs involved.
• These systems have demonstrated remarkable stability over more than a decade of operation, processing trillions of dollars in value with zero successful attacks on their core consensus mechanisms.
• The decentralised nature of mining operations, while concentrated in pools, still maintains a high degree of censorship resistance and network independence.
• PoW has a proven track record that provides confidence to institutional investors and long-term holders seeking maximum security for their assets.

Disadvantages:

• The energy consumption of PoW networks has become their most criticised aspect, with Bitcoin alone consuming more electricity than countries like Argentina.
• Transaction throughput remains severely limited, creating bottlenecks during periods of high demand and resulting in dramatically increased fees for users.
• The environmental impact has led to regulatory scrutiny in various jurisdictions, with some countries banning or restricting PoW mining operations.
• The high barrier to entry for mining has created concerns about centralisation in regions with cheap electricity, potentially concentrating power in specific geographic areas.

Proof of Stake: advantages and disadvantages

Advantages:

• PoS systems consume dramatically less energy while maintaining strong security through economic incentives rather than computational waste, reducing environmental impact by over 99%.
• They can process transactions much faster and at lower costs, making them suitable for everyday use and complex applications like DeFi.
• The lower barrier to entry allows more participants to earn rewards through staking, potentially leading to better decentralisation and broader network participation.
• These systems offer more flexibility for implementing upgrades and governance changes, allowing networks to evolve more rapidly in response to user needs.

Disadvantages:

• PoS networks are relatively new and haven't been tested over the same timeframes as PoW systems, creating uncertainty about their long-term security properties under extreme conditions.
• The "rich get richer" dynamic, where larger stakes earn proportionally more rewards, could lead to centralisation over time as wealth concentrates among the largest validators.
• Some critics argue that PoS systems are less censorship-resistant because validators can be more easily identified and potentially coerced by authorities or malicious actors.
• The complexity of slashing mechanisms and validator requirements introduces new types of risks for participants, including the potential for technical errors to result in financial losses.

It’s worth noting that Ethereum's successful transition to PoS through "The Merge" in September 2022 provided significant validation for the PoS model, demonstrating that large, valuable networks can successfully implement this consensus mechanism while maintaining security and functionality.

Why did Ethereum move to Proof of Stake?

Ethereum's transition from PoW to PoS, known as "The Merge," arguably represented one of the most significant technical achievements in crypto history. The upgrade, completed in September 2022, was driven by several critical factors that had been limiting Ethereum's growth and adoption.

The primary motivation was scalability. Ethereum's PoW system could only process about 15 transactions per second, creating severe bottlenecks as the network grew. High gas fees during peak usage periods made the network unsuitable for many applications, particularly those requiring frequent, small-value transactions. 

The PoS system laid the groundwork for future upgrades that would dramatically increase transaction throughput.

Environmental concerns were a key factor in the shift, with the move to PoS cutting energy use by over 99%, directly tackling one of crypto’s biggest criticisms.

The economic shift was significant. Under its proof‑of‑work system, Ethereum paid out roughly $5 billion annually to miners via block rewards. After the Merge, those rewards shrank by over 80%, now going to validators who stake ETH—an approach widely seen as more sustainable. At the same time, the protocol burns a major portion of transaction fees under EIP‑1559, making ETH potentially deflationary during high usage.

The successful completion of The Merge sent a powerful signal to the broader crypto industry about the viability of PoS systems. It demonstrated that even large, complex networks with billions of dollars in value could successfully transition to more efficient consensus mechanisms without compromising security or functionality.

Which is more secure: PoW or PoS?

The security debate between PoW and PoS systems involves fundamentally different approaches to protecting blockchain networks. Both have proven effective, but they operate on distinct principles that create unique strengths and vulnerabilities.

Security 

PoW security relies on the economic cost of mounting an attack. To successfully attack a PoW network, an adversary would need to control more than 50% of the network's hash rate, requiring massive investments in specialised hardware and electricity. 

For Bitcoin, this would cost billions of dollars and require more mining equipment than currently exists. The beauty of this system lies in its simplicity - the security assumptions are straightforward and have been tested over many years.

PoS security operates through economic penalties rather than computational costs. Validators must stake significant amounts of the network's native token as collateral. If they act maliciously or fail to properly validate transactions, they face slashing: the permanent loss of their staked tokens. This economic incentive structure ensures that honest behaviour is more profitable than attempting to attack the network.

Centralisation 

Each system faces different types of centralisation risks. PoW networks can become centralised through mining pools and the concentration of mining operations in regions with cheap electricity. PoS networks face the risk of wealth concentration, where large stakeholders could potentially gain disproportionate control over the network.

The "nothing at stake" problem, often cited as a weakness of PoS, has been largely addressed through sophisticated slashing mechanisms and finality rules. Modern PoS implementations include penalties that make it economically irrational to validate conflicting blockchain histories.

Which is better?

Experts remain divided on which system offers superior long-term security. The reality is that both systems can be highly secure when properly implemented, with the choice often depending on other factors like energy efficiency, scalability, and governance requirements.

The future of blockchain consensus mechanisms

The evolution of consensus mechanisms continues beyond the PoW versus PoS debate. While these two models dominate current discussions, innovative alternatives are emerging that could reshape how blockchain networks operate in the future.

Hybrid consensus models are gaining attention, combining elements of different mechanisms to balance security, efficiency, and decentralisation. Some networks use PoW for initial block creation and PoS for finalisation, attempting to capture the benefits of both systems while mitigating their individual weaknesses.

Proof of Authority (PoA) systems have found success in enterprise and consortium blockchains where participants are known and trusted. These systems sacrifice some decentralisation for dramatically improved performance and energy efficiency. 

Delegated Proof of Stake (DPoS) represents another variation, where token holders vote for delegates who validate transactions on their behalf.

Emerging mechanisms like Proof of Space, Proof of Burn, and various forms of Proof of Activity are being explored for specific use cases. These alternatives aim to address particular limitations of existing systems or serve specialised applications.

The trend toward environmental sustainability is likely to continue driving innovation in consensus mechanisms. As regulatory pressure increases and institutional adoption grows, networks that can demonstrate minimal environmental impact while maintaining security will have significant advantages.

However, it's unlikely that PoS will completely replace PoW in the near future. Bitcoin's position as digital gold seems secure, and its PoW consensus mechanism is integral to its value proposition. Instead, we're likely to see continued specialisation, with different consensus mechanisms serving different purposes within the broader crypto ecosystem.

Conclusion

The PoW versus PoS debate isn't about declaring a winner, it's about recognising that each serves different purposes in the evolving crypto landscape. Many in the industry consider Bitcoin’s PoW to be a benchmark for security and decentralisation, while PoS networks are becoming the preferred choice for apps requiring speed, efficiency, and environmental sustainability.

Ethereum's successful transition to PoS proved that established networks can evolve without sacrificing security, validating PoS as a mature alternative. As the space develops, expect to see continued specialisation rather than replacement, with different consensus mechanisms optimised for specific use cases.

For investors and enthusiasts, understanding these mechanisms is essential for evaluating projects and predicting where the technology is headed. The consensus mechanism innovation continues to be one of blockchain's most dynamic frontiers.

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